Researching the Aftermath of Violence in Schools
by Janet Salmons
Here in the United States it is hard to focus on our usual topics today. On a personal note, I was a fairly new Colorado resident at the time of the horrific shootings at Columbine and have bought groceries at the store where the shooting occurred last year. I have seen first-hand community-wide pain in the immediate shock and long-term sadness from such events.
I’ve collected some studies that explore ways to research the aftermath of tragedy. This set includes both open-access and subscription-based articles. They include literature reviews, Big Data, social media, survey, and archival data analysis, qualitative case study methods.
Sadly, we need to learn how to carry out this kind of important research, so we understand the impact on individuals and communities and can perhaps discover ways to prevent more senseless violence.
Abel, M. N., Chermak, S., & Freilich, J. D. (2022). Pre-Attack Warning Behaviors of 20 Adolescent School Shooters: A Case Study Analysis. Crime & Delinquency, 68(5), 786–813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128721999338
Abstract. This study examines the pre-attack warning behaviors of adolescent school shooters in the US. We conducted 20 case studies of adolescent school shooters in the United States that committed non-fatal or fatal shootings on K-12 school grounds between 1999 and 2016. We investigate whether the school shooters displayed warning behaviors before the attack, who in the perpetrator’s life was aware of these warning behaviors, and what if any actions were taken in response. Given the emergence of online forms of communication, we also investigate how adolescent school shooters may variably communicate warning behaviors in online and offline contexts.
Ahonen, L., Loeber, R., & Brent, D. A. (2019). The Association Between Serious Mental Health Problems and Violence: Some Common Assumptions and Misconceptions. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 20(5), 613–625. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017726423
Abstract. The media, the general public, and politicians often emphasize that mental illness is a precursor and a cause of violence, particularly emphasizing an assumed relationship between mental illness, including psychopathy and psychosis, and the use of guns to commit violence. We report which individuals with serious mental health problems have an increased risk to commit violence (including gun violence). Second, we answer the question to what extent serious mental health problems explain most violence and especially gun-related violence. And what is the opinion of experts on these questions? Third, we review which effective screening instrument can help to identify individuals with mental health problems who are at risk to carry a gun and commit violence. For policy makers and legislators, this article points out that most psychiatric disorders are not related to violence, with some exceptions such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and often only in conjunction with substance use. We show that the attributable risk of mental illness to explain violence in general is low. We also emphasize that conduct disorder in late childhood or adolescence is a better predictor of violence than is mental illness at a later age. Empirically based screening methods to identify individuals with mental health problems who are prone to violence appear to have limited utility. Implications are discussed for clinicians and practitioners working in the justice system, researchers, and policy makers.
Beland, L.-P., & Kim, D. (2016). The Effect of High School Shootings on Schools and Student Performance. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373715590683
Abstract. We analyze how fatal shootings in high schools affect schools and students using data from shooting databases, school report cards, and the Common Core of Data. We examine schools’ test scores, enrollment, number of teachers, graduation, attendance, and suspension rates at schools that experienced a shooting, employing a difference-in-differences strategy that uses other high schools in the same district as the comparison group. Our findings suggest that homicidal shootings significantly decrease the enrollment of students in Grade 9 and test scores in math and English standardized tests. Using student-level data from California, we confirm that shootings lower test results for students who remain enrolled.
Bonanno, C. M., & Levenson, R. L. (2014). School Shooters: History, Current Theoretical and Empirical Findings, and Strategies for Prevention. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014525425
Abstract. Situations involving active shooters in schools have increased in recent years. We define an “active shooter incident” as an occurrence where one or more individuals participate in an ongoing, random, or systematic shooting spree with the objective of multiple or mass murders. Attempts to build a profile of active school shooters have been unsuccessful to date, although there is some evidence to suggest that mental instability, social isolation, a self-perception of catastrophic loss, and access to weapons play a role in the identification of the shooter in a school shooting incident. This article details theories and after-the-fact findings of investigations on previous school shooters, and we offer an application of Levin and Madfis’s Five Stage Sequential Model to Adam Lanza, the perpetrator of the massacre at Sandy Hook Elementary School in December, 2012. Prevention strategies, suggestions for positive school climates, school security for the physical plants, and threat assessments are discussed, and implications for future research are offered.
Brown, C. H. (2018). Perceptions of School Counselors Surviving a School Shooting. Professional School Counseling. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X19853250
Abstract. School counselors have an ethical and professional responsibility to offer counseling services during crises such as a school shooting. Limited research has explored the lived experiences and practices of school counselors who have experienced a school shooting. This article discusses a qualitative case study investigating school counselors’ experiences related to school shootings and presents implications for school counselors.
Doré, B., Ort, L., Braverman, O., & Ochsner, K. N. (2015). Sadness Shifts to Anxiety Over Time and Distance From the National Tragedy in Newtown, Connecticut. Psychological Science, 26(4), 363–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614562218
Abstract. How do increasing temporal and spatial distance affect the emotions people feel and express in response to tragic events? Standard views suggest that emotional intensity should decrease but are silent on changes in emotional quality. Using a large Twitter data set, we identified temporal and spatial patterns in use of emotional and cognitive words in tweets about the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. Although use of sadness words decreased with time and spatial distance, use of anxiety words showed the opposite pattern and was associated with concurrent increases in language reflecting causal thinking. In a follow-up experiment, we found that thinking about abstract causes (as opposed to concrete details) of this event similarly evoked decreased sadness but increased anxiety, which was associated with perceptions that a similar event might occur in the future. These data challenge current theories of emotional reactivity and identify time, space, and abstract causal thinking as factors that elicit categorical shifts in emotional responses to tragedy.
Frey, A., & Kirk, D. S. (2021). The Impact of Mass Shootings on Attitudes toward Gun Restrictions. Socius. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231211054636
Abstract. Is the American public more likely to favor stricter gun legislation in the aftermath of deadly mass shootings? The authors leverage the occurrence of several mass shootings during multiple survey waves of the General Social Survey between 1987 and 2018 to examine whether exposure to a mass shooting sways public opinion on gun legislation. The results reveal that mass shootings increase support for stricter gun permits among Democrats but not for individuals of other political orientations. An exception to this finding occurs with school shootings, which mobilize broad support for firearm legislation among both Democrats and Republicans.
Graham, A., Jonson, C. L., & Lee, H. (2022). Back in My Day: Generational Beliefs About School Shootings. Criminal Justice Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/07340168221098367 (firewall)
Abstract. Following a school shooting, the public and media search to understand what factors led to such tragedy. Faced with grief, fear, and confusion, people often seek to make sense of traumatic events. As such, this study uses a 2020 Amazon Mechanical Turk survey (N = 739) to examine the impact of generational cohort on the blameworthiness of various perceived causes of school shootings. Findings support some generational differences. Baby Boomers were more likely to believe in societal-related causes of school shootings compared to Millennials and Generation Z. Conversely, Millennials and Generation Z were more likely than Baby Boomers to attribute the cause of school shootings to bullying, mental health, and school security. These findings suggest that future school shooting policies will seek to address bullying, mental health, and school security, while policies surrounding societal factors may be phased out.
Greene, M. B. (2005). Reducing Violence and Aggression in Schools. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6(3), 236–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838005277406
Abstract. This article offers a framework for understanding and responding to school-based aggression and violence. The term school violence is defined, epidemiological data are summarized, a typology of violence reduction strategies is presented, and procedures to effectively implement evidence-based programs are discussed. Although many evidence-based violence prevention programs are now available to schools, much work remains in three critical areas. First, additional research is needed to evaluate the impact of security strategies, peer-led programs, and threat assessment and crisis response initiatives. More generally, multi-level evaluations of integrated arrays of school-based violence prevention strategies needtobeundertaken. Second, effective and realistic school-based assessment strategies need to be established to identify and address organizational barriers to the selection and adoption of an integrated and comprehensive array of targeted evidence-based violence prevention strategies in schools. And third, realistic guidelines through which schools can effectively monitor and implement evidence-based programs need to be developed.
Howard, C. C., Kelchner, V. P., Hilaire, B., Campbell, L. O., & Laguardia, E. D. (2022). Districts Implementation of Active Shooter Drill Policies. Criminal Justice Policy Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/08874034211068448 (firewall)
Abstract. High-profile school shootings provoke public outcry and calls for policy responses to gun violence in schools. However, policy makers face pressure from diverse stakeholders with distinct agendas, and in some areas, there is little empirical research to guide policy makers’ decisions. Active shooter drills are one such example of a hotly debated policy response in need of further study. As a preliminary step to filling this research gap, this mixed-methods study investigated how school districts in Florida have implemented active shooter drills following legislation passed after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida. We analyzed school safety specialists’ perceptions and reports of drill procedures and their alignment with best practices. The majority of the districts surveyed aligned with Best Practices established by the National Association of School Psychologists and National Association of School Resource Officers. Implications for future research and considerations for the implementation of active shooter drills are discussed.
Huskey, M. G., & Connell, N. M. (2021). Preparation or Provocation? Student Perceptions of Active Shooter Drills. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 32(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403419900316
Abstract. Several highly publicized incidents of school violence in the past two decades have highlighted the importance of school safety and crisis preparation for students, parents, and school administrators. Although prior research has focused on the effectiveness of various security and crisis preparation measures, few studies have analyzed student perceptions of these policies. This study utilizes survey data collected from students at a public university in the southwestern United States to evaluate whether active shooter drills experienced in high school were related to negative student outcomes. Results show that experiencing an active shooter drill in high school was associated with significant increases in student fear, inflated perceptions of risk, and a decrease in perceptions of school safety. Implications for future research and policy initiatives regarding active shooter drills are discussed, specifically the need for increased transparency, standardization of drills, and addressing effective methods of implementing active shooter drills in schools.